Operation management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Operation management - Assignment Example It is situated close to the road but with a great accessibility that is leveled by a wider opening based on its position (Ruffa, 2008). There are two gates that allow for exit and entrance without inconveniencing the other. It is spacious and the loading areas are well marked out to avoid any delays or confusions during delivery or loading. The zoning schemes in this particular area are also conducive for the establishment of such a high-powered delivery and loading of the tires which imply that we can maximize the 5000 kg average load per day and become the best supplier in the area. Qn 2: This is a Chevrolet car matrix 400 (also known as Chevrolet Nova) that was manufactured in 1964 after the major companies during this era began restructuring and changing their trends. This car was one of the best at the time with its features being unrivalled by other competitors. It was considered an executive car with four doors and a sedan style to complement its features. It has a front engin e with rear-wheel drive. Its engine has a capacity 3179 cc with a 106 horsepower capacity. It has a three gear manual gear-box and a single barrel carburetor (Huntimer, 2009). This can be contrasted with 2009 Tata Nano Car from India which can be said to be of a higher quality. The car, pictured below, has been in production since 2008 to the present with improvements being made on a daily basis to make sure it attracts as many buyers as possible outdoing other competitors in the market. It is classified as a city car with a four-door one-box body style. Its engine is a 2 cylinder SOHC petrol Bosch multipoint fuel injection with a 624 cc capacity. Its trunk is accessible only from the inside with one windscreen wiper compared to Chevrolet’s pair. Its engine is in the rear compared to the Chevrolet’s which is at the front. It has a 38-metric horse power with two valves per cylinder overhead camshaft. It is similar to the Chevrolet in the fact that it has a rear wheel dr ive but differs in the fact that it has a 4-speed manual transmission. It is also more advanced in its options in the area of the engine compartment with the compressed air engine offering more avenues through which the user will save (Witzel, 2010). Further, the rear suspension has an independent coil spring that allows for safety all the time. It is fuel efficient, making it a car that one can operate comfortably within the city. Its small body makes it easier to maneuver within the city center with the traffic jams being considered. Qn 3: To calculate EMV, given the probabilities, total cost is worked from both the fixed costs, quantities and variable cost. This approach would give the best approach to use. It is should therefore, be the approach that gives us the  ­lowest total costs. Total cost = fixed costs + quantity x variable cost: Method probability Fixed cost($) quantity Variable cost($) Total cost($) Low tech 0.2 45,000 200,000 0.55 45,000+(200,000*0.55)=155,000 Low te ch 0.5 45,000 200,000 0.50 45,000+(200,000*0.50)=145,000 Low tech 0.3 45,000 200,000 0.45 45,000+(200,000*0.45)=135,000 Medium tech 0.7 65,000 200,000 0.45 65,000+(200,000*0.45)=155,000 Medium tech 0.2 65,000 200,000 0.40 65,000+(200,000*0.40)=145,000 Medium tech 0.1 65,000 200,000 0.35 65,000+(200,000*0.35)=135,000 High tech 0.9 75,000 200,000 0.40 75,000+(200,000*0.4

Could 1860 Civil War Be Avoided Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Could 1860 Civil War Be Avoided - Essay Example Thus, each person who is going to understand the American character absolutely needs to explore the great catastrophe of the XIX century, to explore the Civil War. In such a way the main aim of this paper is to assume an American leader role on self, in 1860, and imagine whether it was possible to avoid the Civil War. First of all it is necessary to understand the main reason for this large-scale military conflict, forced the citizens of one country to stand up against each other with arms in their hands. The most common cause of the Civil War is usually considered to be a struggle for the abolition of slavery (Boritt, 1996). Of course, the abolition of slavery was not the only one that caused so far going opposition, so, the growing influence of the North in making some policy decisions that would benefit it also raised questions on the part of the Southerners, and increased the difference in the overall lifestyle of the two parts of the country. Such actions caused great tension, b ut it was a cornerstone in building a relationship of North and South for many years of the country's history. Basing on the opinion that the abolition of slavery was the main reason of the Civil War it is necessary to mention that slavery was more economic than racial phenomenon. In this context we see that the position of Lincoln was not as radical as we sometimes suppose, because he was a proponent of the abolition of the further spread of slavery, but agreed with the right to own slaves in the southern states. Thus, being a president I would be able to try to minimize harms of Lincoln’s views using better considered positions which would help to solve political and economic contradictions between North and South, to look for the solution of territorial expansion, economic crisis and modernization of the economy in those times period. It is possible to suppose that the abolition of the slavery would have more mild character if the state would be able to unite two parts of the country into one organism and buy all slaves from their masters and made them free, giving them an opportunity to change their status from ordinary slaves on wage slaves. In some degree this proposition would cost a lot of money for the state, but this step would overcome many contradictions between South and North, giving both states equal opportunities, using implementation of one strong ideology on the whole nation. One more reason that may explain the necessity of buying slaves by the state is the fact that such actions would help to stop armed revolt among slaves making them free. The main aim of many slaves was to find own freedom, because some slaves had an opportunity to pay money for their lives and become free, while others were very poor and only state could help them to fight for their rights and prevent their participations in rising against the state. Thinking about the main reasons of the Civil War it is important to add that Americans also fought for a principle, this mean that they also need to know which laws were more important - the laws of the State or All-American laws (Higham and Woodworth, 1996). It shows that the nation needed one strong ideology which would be able to organize nation around one big aim in spite of anything. Agreeing with the fact that the Civil War is a big pain of American nation it is necessary to state that scientists, researchers, politicians, historians, and even ordinary people are still debating the topic

An Experience Related to Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

An Experience Related to Crime - Essay Example ïÆ' ¼Ã‚  The actual hit and run incident was not actually observed but the man sprawled just near the middle island of two busy streets was a disturbing sight – especially when people just looked and no one dared to find out if assistance could still be provided. No police officer was on the premises. The initial reaction was to try to bring the victim to the nearest hospital, with the plan of reporting the hit and run incident leading to vehicular manslaughter in the hospital desk. The impact of the criminal incident had unexpected repercussions that could not be forgotten.  A vehicular manslaughter has been defined by Hill and Hill (2005) as â€Å"the crime of causing the death of a human being due to illegal driving of an automobile, including gross negligence, drunk driving, reckless driving, or speeding† (par. 1). In this particular case, it was reported by various bystanders who witnessed the crime as due to reckless driving, in conjunction with speeding. The v ehicle was identified as a cargo truck. Through the assistance of witnesses, who willingly provided their names and contact numbers, the information was likewise relayed to the hospital to be forwarded to criminal investigators and police officers, as required.  I rushed to the hospital the investigation was finally resolved. However, the trauma as spectator, as someone who wanted to immediately give assistance to the victim, and as a community member, rendered this experience as noteworthy and unforgettable.

Recommendation Letter Essay Example for Free

Recommendation Letter Essay In my opinion, I have never before written a recommendation letter where the candidate and the opportunity were such a perfect fit. I have known Janet Lerner for two years now, since she took my introductory course in dinosaurs during her sophomore year. In my long teaching career, I have never met an undergraduate student with such a genuine and focused interest in paleontology, and such a clear aptitude for it. I will demonstrate this by speaking to Janet’s ability as a communicator, her specific interest in dinosaur paleontology, and her maturity and integrity. Janet informs me that you are seeking a skilled communicator to give tours of your animatronic displays. Even during her sophomore year, Janet was a skilled communicator on the subject of dinosaur paleontology. In my class, for which she received an A, Janet wrote two compositions: one on the roots of the discovery and the characteristics of Deinonychus; one evaluating the defensive capabilities of Euoplocephalus. Janet proved herself not only exceptionally articulate and schooled on the subject at hand, but she also showed herself capable of wielding an argument—moving from premise to conclusion based on relevant evidence. Janet also did all this with style and flair. I cite excerpts from her papers: â€Å"Previously seen as cold-blooded, pea-brained lizards . . .† and â€Å"The toe muscles acted as a spring mechanism to flick the claw around towards the back of the foot.† For me, such articulations underscore both Janet’s authentic fascination with dinosaurs and her ability to communicate that excitement and knowledge to others. As an academic advisor to the dormitory where Janet lives, I frequently witness her interactions with others and know first-hand of her community service. Last year, Janet was the elected vice-president in the dormitory, and in this role she was responsible for numerous functions, including faculty/student lunches and a recruiting phoneathon. Janet is well-respected in the dormitory—a popular figure known for her honesty, calm, and kindness. I have seen her handle delicate situations with discretion, and she handles herself in all situations with poise. Finally, Janet has strong convictions tempered by good judgment and reason; she has firm spiritual roots and an active, diverse, social life; she is loyal, committed, and clear-sighted. It is a rare treat to encounter a student as impressive as Janet Lerner, and if you give her the opportunity I am sure you will find her equally impressive. Please do give her your most thoughtful consideration.

Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essay

Changes In Policies Directed Toward Poverty Social Policy Essay This assignment will examine the transformation of social welfare policy that was established and implemented during the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries to address the problem of poverty and to assist the poor at a time when rapid industrialisation hit Britain. These policies had been developed throughout this period using a combination of both state and charitable sector intervention that expanded and contracted at different levels within both sectors at different times. The assignment will be structured to incorporate the following distinct yet associated elements: Initially, I will explain what relief system/policy was in place to address rural and urban poverty leading up to the early part of the 19th century. Then, I will go on to set the environmental context in terms of how the rapid industrialisation that occurred in Britain could have contributed towards exacerbating the poverty being experienced by local communities and individuals during the early 19th century. I will then go on to concentrate on those policies and interventions that were introduced and/or endorsed by the state to specifically address poverty and help the poor; whilst considering in parallel, the differing perceptions of success and failure that surfaced during the implementation of these policies spanning a timeline of the 1800 1939 period. An integral part of this will include the differential categorisations and views on poverty that existed and subsequently evolved during this time period. Main body From the introduction of the Elizabethan Poor Law Act of 1601, those who were considered as deserving poor received relief from within their parish, which was subsidised by a compulsory poor rate levied on each parishs land and property owners. This was intended to give local control and responsibility for reducing the poverty being experienced by the poor, young, infirm or elderly within communities. These deserving poor were provided with what was termed Outdoor Relief in the form of either monetary payment or in-kind relief such as food, rent or clothes which enabled them to stay at home. Those who were classed as poor impotent people (2002, pg 11) and unable to help themselves, alongside the able bodied poor who were set to work, were provided with indoor relief within workhouses. This system continued well in to the late 18th century until the introduction of the Gilberts Act which advocated that workhouses should become poorhouses, run by poor law parish unions, to help only th e sick, the orphaned or the elderly. Joseph Townsend subsequently expressed his disapproval of this approach: and said that the workhouses operate like the figures which we set to scare the birds, till they have learnt first to despise them then to perch upon the objects of their terror. (Townsend 1788 cited in Spicker 1984, pg 10) The able-bodied poor could still claim outdoor relief but would be expected to find employment outside of the union workhouse, therefore poverty and poor relief problems became compounded further during a time of agricultural depression when wages were low and unemployment and population numbers were on the increase. By the early part of the 19th century the poor relief system was under significant strain as poor rates escalated, food prices were higher and the worlds first industrial society was spawned as industrialisation hit Britain. This was to be a period of rapid industrial advance and unprecedented urban growth; of major shifts in patterns of occupation (chiefly from agricultural to industrial and service) and of economic insecurity for many. (Kidd,1999; pg 4) Technological advancement moved into rural communities, and the agricultural labourer was replaced with more cost efficient machinery, such as horse powered threshing machines. This meant that agricultural workers and their families had little choice but to move to the more industrious towns and urban cities where wages were higher and there were more opportunities for work within factories, particularly in the textiles, transport and mining sectors. In reality, this optimistic view taken by those looking to escape the difficulties of the countryside and improve their standard of living would be faced with other prohibiting factors and subsequent poverty within the mass working class neighbourhoods would be harshly realised in various ways. Within the cities people were living in cheaply built, overcrowded terraced housing, which had inadequate sanitation and few amenities. Within the factories, conditions were no better as workers were subject to working unprotected around dangerous machinery, whilst working long hours for unduly low wages and receiving harsh punishments for non compliance. Similarly, employers could freely use child labour which they felt aided poor families by giving their children work from the age of five years upwards, much to the detriment of a childs education which was fated due to no enforced legislation being in place. In addition, there were increasingly instances of poor malnutrition that existed in families which was associated to the costly prices of food, therefore poor factory workers could usually only afford to buy rotten items. Taking into account all of these factors, the families of manual workers were always vulnerable to unemployment, sickness, old age or the death of the breadwinner, which reduced them to pauperism (Royle, 1997; pg 162) New Poor Law As population growth reached an unprecedented level, poor relief costs were also rising as more people were falling into a spiral of poverty and pauperism rather than benefiting from the increased wages and improved standard of living that optimists of the industrial revolution predicted. Politicians recognised that the current poor law system of 1601 needed to undergo considerable reform as there were clearly widespread frustrations on the back of what Malthus argued as providing encouragement to illegitimacy (Spicker et al 2007; pg 148) through the provision of family child allowance and that outdoor relief will diminish both the power and the will to save among the common people (Malthus cited in Kidd 1999; pg 21) inadvertently forcing more people towards poverty. Malthus subsequently concluded in saying that dependent poverty ought to be held disgraceful and the poor laws abolished. (Englander 1998; pg 9) Social reformer and laissez-faire economist Jeremy Bentham argued for a more disciplinary and corrective approach and believed in the primacy of the free competitive market in the solution of social problems. (Englander, 1998, pg 10) In 1832 in response to the pressures highlighted above a Royal Commission on the Poor Law was appointed, consisting of 9 members and several assistant commissioners ranging from economists to social reformers e.g. Edwin Chadwick. Their remit was to identify the flaws in the current poor relief system and make recommendations for a new, more cost efficient model for implementation. In the midst of this review, the first policy move against child labour occurred in the form of the Factory Act of 1833, whereby children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. (INSERT SOURCE) After much assessment of fact and statistics in conjunction with the previous influential ideas portrayed by Malthus and Bentham the New Poor Law Report was published in 1834, that concluded the law itself was the cause of poverty. This led to the subsequent endorsement of the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 that focused on the ethos of instilling a work discipline whilst controlling the costs of poor relief (Pierson, 2009). In order to do this, the act placed its emphasis on putting the deterrent workhouse at its core with the guiding concept of less eligibility which would distinguish between the able-bodied pauper and the independent poor and automatically weed out the merely work- shy from the truly indigent (Brundage, 2002; pg 35). Consequently, the pauper would experience poorer conditions within the workhouse than the lowest living standards of an independent labourer. The workhouse would resemble the layout and mechanics of a correctional institution, comprising segregation (a mongst different classes), uniformity, tedious work, a controlling discipline and the bare minimum in food and accommodation. This it was hoped would ultimately deter the able bodied from applying for indoor relief in favour of finding employment to survive, whilst simultaneously improving the ethical nature of the indolent people it housed and to encourage their eventual liberation. The Act also proposed to abolish all outdoor relief, however this actually persisted to provide assistance up until the 1840s as there were insufficient workhouses built to house the inevitable increase in paupers who would not get help outside. Another key feature that remained was the guardians control of the stringent settlement laws which would help avoid a large influx of paupers from the rural villages, thus keeping costs for the urban tax payer at a manageable level. At the start of the Victorian era in 1837 the view on poverty remained as one of self responsibility and character, whereby the individual was considered responsible for his/her own actions and subsequent survival in life irrespective of the environment they were living in. This opinion gathered momentum as people continually failed to or were reluctant to find a job, thus leading to the increased dependency on the state and little or no inclination to save money as a means of supporting themselves through difficult circumstances and into their old age. This became exacerbated further by those who simply ventured down the path of petty crime, sexual immorality, idleness and insobriety, which were defects which could be overcome by discipline and new attitudes (Townsend, 1993; pg 97); and thus further supported the principles and establishment of the deterrent workhouse system. As the 1840s progressed; the guardians began to reduce the levels of outdoor relief being distributed to the able bodied poor. People were becoming shamed and increasingly aware that to be considered for relief they would be expected to perform some work tasks with a view to accessing employment, otherwise they would be faced with the harsh reality of having to enter the workhouse with their families. Subsequently, people began to recognise the emerging stigma attached to relief and would focus their efforts on finding work and other means of assistance before succumbing to the indignities of the Poor Law and the ultimate indignity of a pauper funeral (Alcock et al, 2008; pg 13). This was similarly echoed by Jeremy Bentham who argued that people did what was pleasant and would not do what was unpleasant so that if people were not to claim relief, it had to be unpleasant (Spicker, 2007; pg 148) At this time the severe measures and conditions within the workhouse system were receiving a barrage of criticism and opposition from the religious sector and workers unions which led to the review and further amendments of the Amendment Act, removing the harshest measures of the workhouses. The Andover workhouse scandal, where conditions in the Andover Union Workhouse were found to be inhumane and dangerous, prompted a government review and the abolishment of the Poor Law Commission, which was replaced with a Poor Law Board. In 1842 Edwin Chadwick wrote and published a report made the statement that sanitation After the influenza and typhoid epidemics in 1837 and 1838, Edwin Chadwick was asked by the government to carry out a new enquiry into sanitation. His report, The Sanitary Conditions of the Labouring Population was published in 1842. In the report Chadwick argued that disease was directly related to living conditions and that there was a desperate need for public health reform. Over 7,000 copies of the report was published and it helped create awareness of the need for government to take action in order to protect the lives of people living in Britains towns and cities. Sir Robert Peel and his Conservative administration were unwilling to support Chadwicks recommendations. A pressure group, the Health of Towns Association, was formed in an effort to persuade Peels government to take action. However, it was only after the 1847 General Election, when Lord John Russell became leader of a new Liberal government, that new legislation was introduced. In 1848 Parliament passed a Public Health Act that provided for the formation of a Central Board of Health. This new body had powers to create local boards to oversee street cleansing, refuse collection, water supply and sewerage systems Edwin Chadwick Sanitation Report (1842) Charitable/self help movement COS (1869) Slum clearance freeing up land for housing developers (1870) Charles Booth (class division/ income) / Seebohm Rowntree Sanitation/Environment studies Physical deterioration/health Boer War National fitness Committee on physical deterioration Settlement Houses to mix upper class in with poor communities Bibliography Alcock, C., Daly, G. and Griggs, E. (2008) Introducing Social Policy, 2nd ed., London: Longman Brundage, A. (2002) The English Poor Laws 1700-1930, Basingstoke: Palgrave Englander, D. (1998) Poverty and Poor Law Reform in 19th Century Britain, 1834-1914 From Chadwick to Booth, Harlow: Longman Kidd, A. (1999) State, Society and the Poor in Nineteenth-Century England,Basingstoke: Macmillan Royle, E. (1997) Modern Britain: A Social History 1750-1985, 2nd ed., London: Arnold Spicker, P. (1984) Stigma and Social Welfare, Kent: Croom Helm Spicker, P., Alvarez Leguizamon, S. and Gordon, D. (2007) Poverty: an international glossary, 2nd ed., London: Zed Townsend, P. (1993) The International Analysis of Poverty, London: Harvester Wheatsheaf

Distributed leadership and teacher leadership

Distributed leadership and teacher leadership This assignment will explore the leadership practices of both distributed leadership and teacher leadership. Where necessary these practices will be applied to the environment of school A. School A is an inner city comprehensive secondary school with a large intake of English as an Additional Language (EAL) students. In 2009 School A achieved its best ever GCSE results in history with 72% of students achieving an A-C grade in Maths and English. These results placed the school within the top 10 best performing schools in the LEA. Other schools in the top 10 included independent grammar schools or outer city comprehensive schools. However, in 2010 the school was unable to maintain the successes of the previous year as overall GCSE results fell by 4%. It could be argued from this, that the school had neither the leadership capacity to sustain or improve (Ansell, 2004) its position. Kotter (1998) has identified eight principal errors that cause organisations to fail and the applicable principle in this scenario is declaring victory too soon. However; this was not the case for school A, the problem was that three strong leaders whom held senior positions were promoted to other schools around the borough and as a result the rising GCSE trend was unsustainable. Lewis (2003) describes such situations as an uncontrollable barrier that impacts upon organisation improvement. A differing view by an external practitioner had highlighted that the lack of distributed leadership or teacher leadership practices may have hindered the schools chances of improving. Leadership was the term commonly used in all of the examples given above and the opinions of the external practitioner provided me with a focus for this assignment. As a result I intend to examine the literature around leadership, in particular how distributed leadership and teacher leadership are perceived and practiced. The policy and theory related literature review will allow me to develop a greater insight into the two leadership styles, which may well improve my practice as a middle leader. To meet the aims of my project I will answer the following questions and where necessary apply these to the context of my school; What is leadership and educational leadership? What are the key features of distributed leadership and teacher leadership? What are the similarities and differences between distributed leadership teacher leadership? What are the merits and constraints to distributed leadership teacher leadership? 2. What is leadership and educational leadership? Despite decades of research into leadership, writers still remain divided over the answer to the question what is leadership? One powerful criticism is that leadership is a label attributed to human behaviour and that this term can be interchanged with another term (Lakomski, 2005). Cuban (1988, p190) states that there are more than 350 definitions of leadership. Paglis and Green (2002) describe leadership as the process whereby a person identifies where the group is at present, where they need to be and then devises a strategy for reaching their destination. Northouse (2007) defines leadership as a process where an individual influences a group to achieve a common goal. Out of the two definitions I feel that Northouse (2007) definition provides the stronger answer to my research question as the definition takes account of personality traits such as influence which Paglis and Greens (2002) definition does not dwell into. Yukl (2002) explains this influence process as a social influen ce process whereby intentional influence is applied to structure the tasks and relationships within an organisation. Earlier researchers by Stodgill (1948) reviewed 124 trait studies of leadership and found several personal factors of leadership which included responsibility, participation capacity and status. However, the criticism was that these studies did not examine how aspects of contexts and personality traits were interrelated in leadership studies. As a consequence many attempts to find universal qualities of leadership proved to be fruitless (Shorter and Greer, 1997). This led to the emergence of many leadership models. Nevertheless, the term leadership within organisations became associated with innovation and the ideas of change, as a result was elevated in status above management (Gronn 2004). Cuban (1988) stated the contrast in leadership and management to be vast, as leaders sought change and wholeheartedly implemented it whereas managers preferred to maintain the status quo. For this reason, many businesses recognised the importance of leadership as the key driver to their future success. However, applying Gronns (2004) and Cubans (1988) ideas to education I feel that it is necessary for the Headteacher to both play the role of a manager and a leader. This is because the Headteacher is responsible for the school vision (leadership) but needs to take practical steps to implement the school strategy (management). Bolman and Deal (1997) share my thoughts and state that modern organisations require practical managers that lead others in achieving a common goal. Educational leadership is a specific area of leadership within education. Although as highlighted earlier defining leadership is impeccably difficult, however educational leadership within a school setting is defined as a process that guides the talents and energies of, teachers, students and parents to achieve the common educational aims. Preliminary the aim of successful leadership is securing and sustaining improvement (Hopkins, 2001). School improvement has been at the forefront of educational reform leading to many writers discussing the positive benefits of leadership to student learning and school improvement. Wallace (2002) explains the impact of leadership upon school effectiveness and school improvement to be of great importance. Leithwood and Riehl (2003) share a similar view and state that large scale studies of schooling conclude the effects of leadership on student learning to be educationally significant. For this reason the term educational leadership has made its mark within education. It is evident from the literature review that no universal definition has been noted for leadership; however it has allowed me to discover that leadership is a process and one which brings about many models of leadership. In school, leadership is considered to be a process that will support schools to be successful (Harris 2004). Traditionally, educational leadership focused around the heroic model of leadership where the Headteacher demonstrated heroic features such as authority, courage and control (Johnson, 1997). The post-heroic model lays emphasis on teamwork, participation and empowerment. In this situation, school leadership does not dictate and control, but collaborates with others regarding organisational plans and operations. (Eicher, 2006). As schools become more challenging places to control and lead it has become necessary for Headteachers to promote school leaders as a means of sustaining improvement. The National College for School Leadership support this view and state As schools become more complex places to manage and lead, we need many more leaders than ever before (NCSL, 2008). The capacity building model is focused around the promotion of leaders. At the centre of the capacity building model, it has been discussed, is distributed leadership along with social cohesion and trust (Hopkins and Jackson, 2002, cited in Harris 2004 p12). In short, distributing leadership equates with taking full advantage of the human capacity within an organisation. This creates opportunities for all teachers to become leaders and contribute towards the schools vision (Harris Muijs, 2005). In the context of my own situation as a middle manager the school has supported my development extensively, as two years ago I started off as a NQT, now I am a middle manager on a fast track senior leadership training programme. Through the support of this development it can be argued that a form of capacity building has taken place. 3. What are the key features of distributed leadership and teacher leadership? Distributed Leadership Distributed leadership is one form of leadership that has raised the interest of many researchers within the educational field. Prominent researchers within this field include James Spillane, James Duignan and Alma Harris. As a result Bennett et al. (2003) address that there is little agreement to the term of distributed leadership and consequently the interpretations of this term vary from writer to writer and some of the interpretations of distributed leadership are related to collegiality. Connections have also been made between ideas of democracy, empowerment, and autonomy; however the integration of these elements is not made explicit. (Harris 2004). Most helpfully Bennett et al. (2003) suggest that it is more practical to imagine distributed leadership as a way of thinking about leadership as oppose to seeing it as another technique or practice. This view is shared by Spillane (2006) who suggests the key feature of distributed leadership to be used as a framework to examine lea dership. Another key feature discussed by Woods et al, (2004, p441) is that distributed leadership highlights leadership as an emergent property of a group networking of interacting individuals. This process shares some resemblance to transformational leadership as both focus on the actions of the group which Gronn (2000) describes as concertive action and an additional dynamic that is the product of conjoint activity. But different to transactional leadership as this focuses around a leader and its followers. The distributed leadership process also allows educational establishments to consider the boundaries of leadership, expanding upon the traditional leadership positions such as those of Assistant Heads and middle leaders. Woods et al (2004, p442) state that this process is predisposed to widen the convectional net of leaders this in turn raises the question of which group and individuals are to be brought into leadership or seen as contributors of it. So therefore distributed leadership concentrates on how leadership practice is distributed between informal and formal leaders. As Bennett et al. (2003 p3) note, distributed leadership is not something done by an individual to others, rather it is an emergent property of a group or network of individuals in which group members pool their expertise. Teacher Leadership Upon reviewing literature surrounding teacher leadership, it is evident that a precise meaning cant be found. The idea of teacher leadership focuses its attention towards the encouragement of teachers becoming leaders and engrossing in leadership activities outside the classroom environment. Barth (2007) describes this process of leadership where teachers take on initiatives that will inturn have a positive impact within the classroom. Similarly, Wasley (in Harris and Muijs, 2005) suggest that the key characteristic of teacher leadership is to support colleagues to develop work on their own initiative, rather than be lead by initiatives derived from a formal leader. Within my responsibilities as a director of specialism (Business and Enterprise) in my school I have to co-ordinate several whole school enterprise days throughout the year. Rather than organising and leading activities myself, I get my team on board and discuss the delivery of these enterprise days. By getting the team on board I am creating opportunities for these members to build upon their strengths and offer opportunities where they can deliver these sessions independently. It is clear from this example that a form of teacher leadership is taken place within my department. Another aspect of teacher leadership is for teachers to work together, constructing meaning and knowledge collectively and collaboratively (Lambert 1998). It is argued that if everyone has the capacity to do this, only then will school improvement take place (Katzenmeyer and Moller, 2001). This is why schools should have an understanding that leadership should not just be assigned to those within formal positions (Harris and Lambert, 2003). Research has also addressed that understanding leadership alone will not be enough to encourage all staff to play a part in the schools improvement process alone, a form of capacity building will also be required. (Harris and Muijs 2005). It has been highlighted from the Ofsted report during our last inspection that Assessment for learning practices should be consistently applied throughout the whole school. This has resulted to several teacher training days focused around assessment practices. Opportunities have been provided during these days fo r teachers to work collaboratively and share good practice to all. So, it can be argued that these practices share the opinions of both Katzenmeyer and Moller (2001) and Harris and Muijs 2005. The largest numbers of staff within a school are teachers and therefore are at the centre of the capacity building model. The argument for this, is teachers are in the unique position to make change happen given that they are directly involved in the teaching process (Lieberman Miller 2004). Therefore, the key characteristic of teacher leadership is to develop teachers to become leaders beyond the classroom thus leading to improved educational practice (Katzenmeyer and Moller, 2001). 4. What are the similarities and differences between distributed leadership teacher leadership? The focus of distributive leadership is the distribution of power that is stretched over a number of individuals and where the leadership activities are achieved through the interaction of many leaders (Spillane and Louis 2002). Harris (2005) shares a similar view and suggests that distributive leadership is centred on the creation of conditions where people work together and learn together. So it could be argued that teacher leadership is just one area under the umbrella of distributed leadership. Whereby, this process of distributive leadership is all about giving authority to teachers and empowering them to lead, (Harris 2005). This is a move away from the individualism and isolation of teaching brought forward by Lortie (1975 cited in Spillane et al 2001) Teacher leadership and distributed leadership share many similarities (Muijs and Harris, 2003). Both leadership processes are centred on people working together and it is argued that the knowledge base of individuals would increase when compared to individuals who worked alone (Bennett et al 2003). This is why both leadership types promote the construction of knowledge through cooperation and active participation (Harris and Lambert, 2003). 5. What are the benefits and constraints of distributed leadership and teacher leadership? This section will be broken into sub-headings generated from distinctive elements of distributed leadership, distinguished upon reviewing related literature surrounding this type of leadership practice. (Gronn 2000; Harris 2004; Timperley; 2005; MacBeath et al 2005; Spillane 2006). Within this section I will discuss the benefits and constraints of both leadership types. As addressed earlier teacher leadership forms one strand of distributed leadership so therefore my discussion surrounding the benefits and constraints of this leadership type will also be addressed within this section. Emergent property of interaction One of the primary functions of distributed leadership is the development of interaction between groups of people (Woods et al 2004). Spillane et al (2001) describe this as a collective leadership process that leads to an evolution of leadership practice, one which is far greater than the sum of each individuals practice. In the context of my school, this type of process could involve groups of professionals (teachers and senior leaders) coming together and sharing their expertise on a particular topic i.e. improvement strategies of Assessment for learning within classrooms. A shared approach compared to a singular led approach would not only yield a stronger pool of information, but also create a sense of belonging amongst teachers. After all, it is teachers who are required to implement these practices. This approach is similar to theories of teamwork, where the view is that working together produces far greater results than working alone (Harris 2004). It is also suggested that th e interaction approach would be best utilised in an environment where relationships are based on support and mutual protection (Belbin 2000). In respective of teacher leadership, Griffin (1995) highlights the need for teachers to prosper as leaders so they can support the development of other teachers. The knock on effect of teachers not interacting with each other can be seen as an intellectual resource being wasted. A similar view is shared by Harris and Mujis (2005) who have reported that teachers knowledge and expertise increase after being involved in discussion sessions with other leaders. These viewpoints are shared by my colleagues who are on the teaching and learning committee within my school. Having the time to interact with other teachers and discuss improvement ideas/good practice has improved the teaching within their own classroom and this would not have been possible prior to the committee being set up. Top-down Vs Bottoms-up The term top down leadership in schools is a process whereby strategies and solutions are identified by senior leaders and are then passed down the organisation (Hodgkinson 1991). Whereas the bottoms up approach promotes employee participation at all levels of the decision making process. Ryan (2003) suggests that distributive leadership is a non-hierarchical collaborative approach. The benefits of the collaborative approach would increase work performance compared to the traditional hierarchical approach. (Leithwood and Riehl 2003). As a middle manager I have witnessed the bottoms up approach to be more favourable than the hierarchical approach. For example, when the Deputy Headteacher runs CPD sessions some staff are displeased with the development support provided as their views are not taken into consideration. When the contributions and views of teachers are considered, then there is a greater chance that teachers will implement school strategies and support school goals. (Shepp ard,1996). Research has made it known that the authoritarian top-down style of leadership is common in schools that are in special measures (Gray, 2000) compared to improving schools that have embedded distributive leadership (Muijs and Harris 2003). It is apparent from this research that top-down leadership approaches are found within failing schools; however this point cannot be generalised as other factors could play a part towards a school deemed to be failing. Murphy and Meyers (2008) highlight lack of readiness for school, low socioeconomic status of students and urban school settings as a constituent to a failing school. Furthermore, I feel that top down and bottoms up leadership approaches can coexist within a school and still be classed within the spectrum of distributed leadership. For example the Assistant Head in charge of teaching and learning at my school had put forward the five principles to monitor progress of students in lessons. The teachers administered these principles and were given the opportunity to discuss the results with the Assistant Head to identify improvement strategies for the problem areas. This process both involved formalised leaders and informal leaders working together on a similar cause and is described by Spillane (2006) as coordinated distributed leadership. As a recognition of expertise Distributed leadership focuses its attention on assigning experts to appropriate tasks within formal and informal roles and this is different to the traditional leadership model which would only assign formal leaders to take on leadership tasks. Owens (2004) suggests that schools operate under complex systems so therefore; it is unrealistic for the Headteacher to be an expert in all areas of the school. Applied to the context of my school, the Headteacher has recruited a business manager to deal with the financial aspects of the school and oversee the Building School of the Future (BSF) programme. The reason for this is, the business manager has previous experience not only in finance but most importantly holds the expertise in managing a school rebuild elsewhere. Although the Headteacher is ultimately accountable for the school finances and the rebuild, this role is assigned to an expert to ensure the efficient running of school operations. Expertise can also be drawn from school teachers. By creating a climate that identifies teachers know-how will bring out the leadership within those teachers. For the Headteacher to seek expertise outside the formalised roles will empower those individuals (Hargreaves, 1999). However, in my opinion there proves to be unanswered questions with Hargreaves (1999) thoughts as no mention is made when the expert i.e. teacher is not skilled or enthusiastic to lead and as a result the process of identifying expertise may become unproductive. However, Duignan (2006) does shed some light on my thoughts and mentions recognising expertise will promote an allowed-to-be-a-leader culture; this can be a powerful tool in the motivation, support and appreciate of teachers. Conversely it is argued by Katzenmeyer Moller (2001) that teachers can be supported to develop their leadership potential, but teacher leadership can only blossom within a culture where the opinions of these leaders are respected. Nevertheless, it is suggested that the support and expertise offered by teachers can fulfil the responsibilities of the site leaders (Keedy Finch 1994). Lambert (1998) believes that this allows experts to shine from outside the formalised roles of leadership and will increase their capability of becoming leaders. These views could potentially support the problems towards the decline in GCSE results within my school. An initial thought to the cause of this problem was through the departure of three senior leaders who were promoted to posts at other schools. The view here was that when strong leaders left their posts, it led to the decline in students academic results. Lamberts, Keedys and Finchs (1998) views could not be applied to the context of my school, as there was little evidence of a culture of teacher leadership being recognised, nurtured and built upon within my school. If the teacher leadership culture was apparent then the school may not have been affected when the senior leaders left their posts. Harris and Lambert (2003) support my view and put forward the notion that all teachers harbour leadership capabilities and if unlocked can be engaged for the benefit of the school. It has been noted from the literature on teacher leadership that formal roles such as lead teachers were established to recognise the efforts of teachers, however; these programmes were found to be ineffective as Smylie and Denny (1990) found out. These teacher leaders could not fully support their fellow teachers as most of their time was taken up attending meetings as opposed to spending time at improving the practice of other teachers. Supporting school improvement It is argued that leadership that is distributed can support capacity building in school and contribute to school improvement (Harris 2004). This view is supported by Silns and Mulford (2002), their research within this area has identified that student outcomes are likely to increase if the leadership is distributed throughout the school community. However, it is Harris (2004) that brings to our attention that more evidence is required to confirm the relationship between student learning outcomes and distributive leadership. Hallinger and Heck (1998) also bring to our attention that the quality of teaching and learning play a pivotal role in supporting student achievement. If the students are doing better compared to the previous year then the school is seen to be improving. School leaders need to recognise that teachers have contributed extensively to this improvement. Literature has also highlighted that teacher leadership can lead to improved student outcomes as knowledge and skills are shared in order to improve instructional practice (Smylie, 1994) This view is shared by Lieberman and Miller (2004) who suggest, when teachers have opportunities to lead and share good practice the chances of securing the quality of teaching learning is increased. Barth (2007) adds to this view by stating that schools badly need the leadership of teachers if they are to improve It is apparent from the views of the writers above; that teacher leadership plays a crucial role in raising attainment. If effective teacher leadership practices are in place then students attainment will increase. This may not be the case within my school as GCSE results had fallen by 4% compared to the previous year. Therefore; this raises the question is teacher leadership not prominent in my school or is leadership on a whole poor? Moreover, Mendez-Morze (1992) research into effective urban schools has highlighted that student achievement could only be raised with the guidance of an effective leader. -Tensions barriers to distributed leadership and teacher leadership There are no guidelines available as to how distributive leadership should be implemented and this is the key concern of this type of leadership. Other leadership models that exist, encompass guides of delivery for example, John Adairs (1973) Action Centred Leadership model provides a blueprint for the leadership of a team or an organisation. As the model is open to interpretation, the distributive process may lead to the abuse of power and as a result the intentions of this leadership style may prove to be invalid (Maxy and Nguyen 2006 cited in Mayrowetz 2008). Gunter and Ribbins (2003) support this view and address concerns to what distributive leadership will look like in an organisation. Spillane (2005) challenging these concerns and points out that distributive leadership is a way of thinking of leadership and as a result no blueprint can be made available nor an instruction of how leadership should be practiced in a school. This view is supported by Harris (2005), upon the revi ew of both Spillanes and Gronns work into this process of leadership and addresses that distributive leadership is a way of studying leadership as opposed to explaining leadership practice. Also, the distributive process encourages teachers to take on leadership roles, in my opinion there is a significant problem with this as an assumption is made that teachers are capable in taking on leadership roles. Smylie (1994) study of teacher leaders and their principles brought out that teachers raised concerns about the lack of training that was provided towards building new working relationships. In my experience leaders require some form of training prior to taking on leadership responsibilities. The expertise of potential teacher leaders hold may not be effective if the teachers are not capable to lead. This is why in my school the majority of leaders assigned to middle leadership and senior leadership positions attend training courses delivered by the NCSL. Centralised systems of accountability that hold the Headteacher accountable can prove to be another barrier towards successful implementation of distributive leadership. One reason for this is that the Headteacher may be reluctant to delegate their power as he/ she may feel vulnerable due to the lack of control they harbour once others bear the burden of responsibility. OECD (2008) state that this may be true in cases where legal, HR, and financial control is given to others in the school. This is not the case with my school as the Headteacher has given away some of her power to others for example the responsibility of the school finances has been passed down to the business manager within the school and the curriculum design and management passed down to the Deputy Headteacher. This demonstrates that distributed leadership is taking effect as responsibility has been delegated to experts within their fields. Hierarchical systems that remunerate staff in accordance to their roles and responsibilities can prove to be a barrier to teacher leadership. Teachers may feel that the increase workload of additional responsibilities may not be worthwhile if financial rewards are not provided, in return may lead to teachers not being motivated enough to take on leadership roles. In my experience of taking on additional teaching and learning leadership responsibilities when I was teaching a full timetable, I had problems fulfilling my role fully due to the lack of time made available for me to implement my additional leadership responsibilities. My view is supported by several other studies which recommended that time has to be made available for teachers to plan and discuss whole school plans, curriculum matters or liaising with external bodies (Ovando; Seasore-Louis et al., cited in Muijs and Harris 2003). 6. Conclusion I am aware of the benefits that distributed leadership can provide, in particular having a framework to examine and understand leadership practice and developing group interactions through the collaboration process. However, the literature has acknowledged that distributed leadership is a new phenomenon that encompasses a limited literature base and a widely accepted definition (Bennett, Harvey, Wise Woods, 2003; Harris, 2004; Timperley, 2005; Spillane, 2006). In addition there is also little empirical evidence towards the effectiveness of the impact that distributed leadership has towards increasing student attainment and promoting instructional improvement. On this basis, I was unable to find a definitive answer to my hypothesis, which was to determine whether distributed leadership could improve student grades. What I have become aware of is, distributive leadership can play a part to increasing student attainment. Apart from the improvement of student grades, distributed leadership is a powerful leadership strategy where evidence has shown contributes directly to school effectiveness and development (Muijs and Harris, 2003). It is also suggested that the structure of teacher leadership creates a more professional work atmosphere (Little, 1995), which leads to building of a professional community. Studies have found that a school with higher levels of teacher learning and leadership, significantly enhances teacher work in the classroom (Silns and Mulford, 2002) as such an environment encourages collaboration and trust. However; the research has found Headteachers must be prepared to create a culture and climate that is favourable to teacher leadership (Bishop, Tinley Berman, 1997) as teacher leadership offers a realistic understanding of the idea maintained by the theory of distributed leadership as it presents leadership as an invention of a collective activity with all teachers being involved. Overall, the literature reviewed has allowed me generate a deeper understanding of both distributed leadership and teacher leadership. It was also apparent from the application of the literature to the context of my school that distributive practices do exist with some elements of teacher leadership. However, I am aware that it was not possible for me to directly link/test the literature to my problem as no action research into distributed and teacher leadership methods were trialled and tested. Nevertheless the literature has enabled me to build a theoretical base that would be

Book Report on Clara Barton :: Papers

Book Report on Clara Barton Clara Barton attacked many social problems of the 1800’s. From creating a free school, to being on the front lines helping soldiers in the Civil War, to creating the American Red Cross, Clara Barton was a humanitarian. She fought for what she believed in and because of her never-ending fight for people, the world is a different place. Clara Barton was born during 1821 in Massachusetts. As a young child, Barton learned a great deal of schooling from her older siblings; she learned a wide variety of different subjects. She seized every educational opportunity that she was given and she worked hard to receive a well rounded-education. Clara Barton would later use her education to create her own school and eventually help start an organization that is still used today. As a young child, Clara was extremely shy; nevertheless, after many years she was able to overcome this. Even as a young child Clara thrived helping others. She tended to her sick brother who was severely injured by a roofing accident on a regular basis. The skills she learned from helping her brother proved to be used again when she was on the front-line of the Civil War helping wounded soldiers. At the age of 18, Miss Barton became a schoolteacher. She taught at numerous different schools around Massachusetts. Clara noticed in one particular town that many of the students did not attend school that greatly distressed her. She wanted all children to have the same educational opportunity that she had when she was growing up. Eventually, Barton started her own school. It was free. However, she did not stay there for a long period of time. Clara only taught for a matter of ten years, teaching had exhausted Barton and she longed for a change in her life. She left the teaching field to move onto another field. Barton moved to Washington DC and she became a clerk in the US Patent Office. When the Civil War broke out, Barton chose to resign from her position in the US Patent Office. She started working on the battlefield as a volunteer. At first her basic job was to distribute bandages and war supplies to the wounded soldiers. Barton took her job to another extreme.