Art Trends In The 1920s :: Art

Art Trends In The 1920's The art of the 20th century contained many elements previous styles that had begun in the late 19th century. The Impressionists had abandoned the appearance of nature to concentrate on color and its relation to the quality of light. (Collier's Encyclopedia, 745) This was then abandoned for a kind expressionism, a personal and subjective style created. A number of outstanding 20th century artists working outside the many movements of art created works of great individuality. (Collier's Encyclopedia, 745) Some major trends of the art in the 1920's were Impressionism, Art Deco, Cubism, Abstract Art, and Realism. Impressionism is the movement in painting and music. The impressionist movement is often considered to mark the beginning of the modern period in art. The primary object is to achieve a spontaneous, undetailed rendering of the world through careful representation of the effect of natural light on objects. ("Impressionism", Encarta) Art Deco, was used primarily in furniture, jewelry, textiles, and interior decoration. Art Deco grew out of a conscious effort to simplify the elaborate of the century, Art Nouveau. Art Deco became more geometric and linear as objects increasingly massed produced. Art Deco was a style of decorative are and architecture that was popular in the 1920's. ("Art Deco", Encarta) Cubism, a movement in modern art, especially painting, that was primarily concerned with abstract forms rather than lifelike representation. ("Cubism", Encarta) Abstract Art, is art that uses forms having no direct reference to external or perceived reality. ("Abstract Art", Encarta) Realism, in art is an attempt to describe human behavior and surroundings or to represent figures and objects exactly as they appear in life. ("Realism", Encarta) There were many types of art in the 1920's, but the main ones were Impressionism, Art Deco, Cubism, Abstract Art, and Realism.

Sigmund Freud Essay -- essays research papers

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sigmund Freud was born on May 6, 1856 in Freiberg, Moravia in 1856. When he was four years old his family moved to Vienna. Due to his Jewish heritage, Freud left for England when the Nazi’s took control of Austria. Freud always considered himself first and foremost a scientist, endeavoring to extend the compass of human knowledge, and to his end, he enrolled at the medical school at the University of Vienna in 1873.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sigmund Freud elaborated the theory that the mind is a complex energy-system, the structural investigation of which is proper province of psychology. He articulated and refined the concepts of the unconscious, of infantile sexuality, of repression, and proposed a tri-partite account of the mind's structure, all as part of a radically new conceptual and therapeutic frame of reference for the understanding of human psychological development and the treatment of abnormal mental conditions. Freud's innovative treatment of human actions, dreams, and indeed of cultural artefacts as invariably possessing implicit symbolic significance has proven to be extraordinarily fecund, and has had massive implications for a wide variety of fields, including anthropology, semiotics, and artistic creativity and appreciation in addition to psychology. Accomplishments   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sigmund Freud concentrated originally on biology, doing research in physiology for six years under the great German scientist Ernest von Brucke. After that he focused in neurology. While at the university, in 1874 he discovered anti-Jewish prejudices and declared his place is â€Å"with the opposition.† He traveled to Manchester, Britain, to see his half brother, Philippe, and his niece Pauline, in 1875. The following year he did his first personal research in Trieste, on sexual glands of anguilas. That sane year he joined Brucke’s laboratory. In 1877, Freud published the end result of his anatomical research on the central nervous system of a specific larva. In 1880, he did a year of military service. Freud received his medical degree in 1881. Having become engaged to be married in 1882, he rather unwillingly took up more dependable and financially rewarding work as a doctor at Vienna General Hospital. Shortly after his marriage in 1886, which was e xtremely happy, and gave hi... ... unconscious in its place. What he discovered, it has been suggested, was the extreme prevalence of child sexual abuse, particularly of young girls, even in respectable nineteenth century Vienna. He did in fact offer an early 'seduction theory' of neuroses. He quickly withdrew this theory because of it being discouraged , and replaced with theory of the unconscious. Conclusion In whole, Sigmund Freud is one of the most important thinkers of the twentieth century. Over the years, his work became more complex and wider in scope, less influenced by biology, and more humane. Once his name was established, people traveled to see him and wrote to him from all over the world. What these people sensed in him was his interest, his ability to put himself in their place, and his generous desire to help them. Work Cited Cf. Masson, J. The Assault on Truth http://www.freudfile.org/chronology_1.html http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/freud.html http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/freud.html   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://members.aol.com/sidarth20/page3/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   www.allpsych.com www.insomnium.co.uk

Disc Jockey

My idea of a professional life may seem glamorous and perhaps non-conventional. It is not the type of job that children grow up dreaming about. In fact, I am not exactly sure when the obsession or desire to become a disc jockey came up but I am sure of the fact that I do want to become a successful one. To begin, it is not so much the lifestyle, though it would be impossible to admit that there was not a single part of me that wanted to enjoy the same type of lifestyle, but the music. Having the professional career of a disc jockey is ideal for many reasons.It allows one to work with various artists and also exposes one to the different talents in the music industry. One’s creative talent is also allowed to grow and improve as a disc jockey. The exposure to all sorts of music that one is able to create with and blend makes a career as a disc jockey very desirable to myself. Before discussing this chosen profession, however, it is important to first discuss what exactly a disc jockey is. A disc jockey is basically defined as a person who selects, programs and plays music. This music is usually from a prerecorded/preselected track or selection.This is then mixed and played for any selected audience who can either be live or on the radio or even recorded in a studio for album sales. While the disc jockey profession has typically been considered as merely supplementary, it has been greatly developed over the years with the developments in the music and recording industry such as the introduction of digital formats, which DJs use to create live mixes and incorporate sound samples and thus creating a unique new sound. Income Income wise, DJs make a fairly decent amount of money.The highly sought after disc jockeys usually earn anywhere from US$100,000 to US$250,000 on average every year. There are of course exceptions depending on how sought after the disc jockey is. Starting out, a decently skilled and equipped disc jockey can expect to haul in around US$50,0 00 a year just from hosting events and parties in bars and other functions. There is no certification or educational attainment required to become a successful disc jockey as even the most famous ones never really received any sort of formal training but instead trained themselves.Neither is race a factor as a disc jockey can come from any racial background and still become succesful. Perhaps the only factor that figures when determining the income of a disc jockey is popularity and demand. Working Conditions The job of a disc jockey pays well but also demands a lot from the disc jockey. First off, the working hours are quite different from the normal shifts that other professionals have. Being a disc jockey, one must be willing to work long late hours in the evenings until early mornings.The demand for a disc jockey is usually during party hours which may begin as early as 9 in the evening and last until the wee hours of the morning of the next day. These working hours necessitate that a disc jockey must be able to adapt and have sleeping hours that allow for this type of work. The stress and burn-out rate is very high among disc jockeys because of this. For disc jockeys who are in high demand, the stress is even greater and any type of family time is very difficult. Disc jockeys also constantly travel in search of better opportunities and to play at concerts.This means that there is very little time to carry out the day to day affairs. The most important factor is the health factor as disc jockeys are constantly exposed to excessively loud levels of music. Being in such an environment lends to the deterioration of one’s hearing and the different hours may also have an effect on the long term health of any disc jockey. That is why most disc jockeys make sure that they are physically fit and well rested before any concert or event. Personality/Skills Being a disc jockey does not require a college degree, much less any educational degree. Though, it is i mportant to receive an education.There is no requirement for a disc jockeys personality although recent studies have shown that good communication skills and pleasing personalities always perform better in any professional endeavor. A disc jockey must, however, be able to properly gauge the mood of the crowd at the event in order to know what type of music to play. The basic skill a disc jockey needs is the musical skill. A disc jockey must be able to blend the music and tracks seamlessly. He must be able to know when to insert a certain track or know what type of beat and tempo to add to another song to create an entertaining atmosphere.2. ) The most important part of becoming a disc jockey is getting enough real life experience in order to know the crowds and events scene. There is no course or educational program that can adequately prepare someone to become a disc jockey. The best teacher for this type of profession is experience and musical inclination. Music is similar to fash ion and in order for one to become successful it is important to be able to adapt and develop a unique musical signature that crowds enjoy. Education/Training As previously mentioned, there is no requisite degree for a disc jockey.Perhaps the only education a disc jockey needs will come from a professional disc jockey training school which is starting to abound in the United States. It does not hurt of course to have a good musical background. One can enroll in the many music courses in any of the colleges and receive a proper background in order to develop one’s skill and learn what types of sounds can blend well. There is no certification for being a disc jockey since professionals in the entertainment industry generally do not require professional studies in order to practice their profession.Equipment The most important part of being a disc jockey is having the proper equipment, not only to perform better during events but also in order to be able to practice and improve in one’s profession. Basic equipment The equipment needed to DJ consists of: Sound recordings in a DJ's preferred medium (eg. vinyl records, compact discs (CDs), computer media files) A minimum of two devices to play sound recordings, for alternating back and forth to create a continuous playback of music (e. g. record players, compact disc players, computer media players such as an MP3 player)A sound system for amplification or broadcasting of the recordings (e. g. portable audio system, PA system) or a radio broadcasting system. A DJ mixer, an electronic two-channel mixer with a crossfader used to smoothly go from one song to another (using two or more playback devices) A microphone, so that the DJ can introduce songs and speak to the audience, and headphones or a monitor speaker, which is used to listen to one recording while the other is playing, without outputting the sound to the audience). Advanced equipment Other equipment can be added to the basic DJ set-up (above) p roviding unique sound manipulations.Such devices include but are not limited to: Electronic effects processors (delay, reverb, octave, equalizer, chorus, etc). Some club DJs use a sub octave effect which creates a very low bass sound and adds it to the mix. A computerized performance system, which can be used with timecode encoded vinyl/CD content to manipulate digital files on the computer in real time. Multi-stylus headshells, which allow a DJ to play different grooves of the same record at the same time. Special DJ digital controller hardware can manipulate digital files on a PC or laptop, by using midi signalsSamplers, electronic musical keyboards (synths), or drum machines. Length of Time In order to become a successful disc jockey, one needs to have enough experience or at least have enough talent. There are certain disc jockeys who have gained overnight success by landing an excellent gig. There are also those who have apprenticed under the more successful disc jockeys and sl owly worked their way up to stardom. There is no fixed length of time required in order for a person to become a disc jockey as success in this profession is determined by many things such as popularity and quality of events performed.The best time line for this will be five years from the beginning of training to eventual success. Courses offered for professional disc jockey training last for around sixty (60) days and apprenticeship under a good disc jockey may range anywhere from sic (6) months to one (1) year. Under the normal circumstances, one will be able to gain enough experience and develop a sufficient amount of contacts in the entertainment industry in a span of five (5) years.

The Corporal Punishment

Corporal punishment is a very complex and controversial topic. It's hard to decide what is right and what is wrong when discussing how to discipline children. For those of you who are not familiar with the term corporal punishment it is the use of physical force with the intention of causing a child to experience pain, but not injury, for the purpose of correction or control of the child's behavior. I read a lot of definitions, but I think Murray Straus summed it up the best with that definition. Corporal punishment is sometimes called spanking. The more common types of corporal punishment are spanking, grabbing or shoving, and hitting a child with objects such as a hair brush, belt, or paddle (Straus, 4-5). In the following paragraphs such things as who uses corporal punishment, the short long term effects of corporal, and things to do instead of using corporal punishment will be discussed. To my surprise many people do in fact use corporal punishment. Many people believe that when their child†s behavior gets out of control that the only way to restore order is to paddle the ones that are causing problems. In the Gallup Monthly Poll of 1000 randomly selected American parents, â€Å"Over half of the parents said they administered minor physical punishment during the past year, while 22 percent said they use severe physical punishment. â€Å"(Daro 519). This physical punishment does not work as effectively as other types of punishment and strictly speaking is illegal. â€Å"It is much better to choose a punishment that will fit the action, for example if a child has a fight over the TV, take away TV privileges. Corporal punishment is usually administered when the parent is being brash and hasn't had time to cool down from the child's misbehavior. † (Maccoby 19). Recently the â€Å"No hitting-use words to express you feelings† method has been thought to resolve problems, but many people don't believe it is effective and they result to other methods, such as corporal punishment. A study conducted by Gelles in 1989 found that 84 per cent of 1,470 adults agreed that â€Å"It is sometimes necessary to discipline a child with a hard spanking. † (20). What does this mean? It means that there are a lot of people out there who are using corporal punishment and that might be causing psychological problems within their children and may not even recognize it (Gelles 23). If you were to talk to parents and children of earlier generations you wouldn't believe the number of parents who spanked their children. Most parents spank their children because they believe it was for their own good (Straus 3). Research up to 1985 shows that more than 90% of parents used corporal punishment on toddlers and more than half continued to use it during the early teen years. Even this high figure represents a decrease from 99% in the 1950s and 97% in 1975. There have been further decreases since 1985, but almost all children continue to experience corporal punishment (White 12). These high prevalence rates and the high rates of approval of spanking may be interpreted as an indication that parents spank with little thought of possible side effects, such as later aggression and are learning to control this as time goes on (Daro 528). Talking with my parents and grandparents they said children back then were different. They respected their parents and followed directions. So why the change? Issues such as society, the increase in violence on TV, and the number of hours people spend watching TV may be leading factors in the change in children†s behavior. Now a day, there are children who enjoy being spanked because even though it was painful, it is quick and they didn't have to do any extra chores (Chmelynski 51). Out of the seven or eight articles I read there was only one that mentioned corporal punishment as a positive reinforcement. Most of the articles stated that it was either abuse or ineffective. Stuart Tolman, the Murtaugh school board chairman in Illonois, states that â€Å"Corporal punishment is effective†. He adopted corporal punishment to answer parent†s request of better discipline. He thinks, â€Å"suspensions just give kids a holiday. † He also said since they have been using corporal punishment there has been no suspensions that year (Chmelynski 51). Just because one out of seven or eight articles says that corporal punishment does work, does that mean it really does work? Of course not. Joy Cain states, â€Å"Abusing children directly affects their performance in school. â€Å"(101). According to a study published in Social Work Research, students who are abused consistently do worse on â€Å"CAT standardized tests, grade point averages, proportion who dropped out when eligible, mean annual absences, proportion of possible behavior problems and retention, and proportion with delinquency complaints† (Eron 172). Spanking a child will not stop them from doing the same thing later in life. According to research conducted, â€Å"Children who have been slapped or hit are usually so overwhelmed with anger and hurt feelings that they cannot remember what they were punished for. According to Susan Smith, the lesson that is being taught to a child that is being hit is that hitting is a solution to solving problems(1). Believe it or not there are short term and long term effects to corporal punishment. Obviously the short-term effect would be the stopping of the inappropriate behavior, but the long-term effect might not be so obvious. To determine definite results of long-term effects, many studies have to be conducted and many conclusions have to be drawn. Unfortunately, no types of studies have been done. The reason for this is that there would have to be an experimental group that would have to use corporal punishment and since many social scientists believe that harm will result in such studies, they don't want to conduct them. Even though there have been no studies reported, there have been some theories that have been supported by some research. These findings show that the more corporal punishment, the higher the rate of undesirable behaviors or thought later in life, such things as delinquency, approval of violence, alienation, depression, and lower earnings (Straus 196). Straus also believes that victims of corporal punishment have an increased chance of worse behavior and other problems, including impaired learning and as mentioned before, delinquency; and later in life, depression, child abuse, wife beating, and other crimes† (Straus 4). Although cultural norms supporting corporal punishment of children may be changing, there is abundant evidence that these norms are deeply rooted and pervasive (Yarrow 21). One of the most fundamental ways in which cultural norms supporting corporal punishment are expressed is in the Criminal law on assault. In every state of the U. S. hitting a child for purposes of correction or control is exempt from the crime of assault, usually with the proviso that it is limited to â€Å"reasonable force. † In practice, that includes the right to hit with belts and paddles, provided the child is not injured (Straus 12). In the 1960s every state in the United States passed legislation designed to protect children from physical abuse and to provide services for abused children. Ironically, in order to garner sufficient votes to pass the child abuse laws, it was typically necessary to include a provision declaring that parents continued to have the right to use corporal punishment. As a result, legislation intended to protect children from physical abuse contained provisions that further legitimated a practice that increases the risk of physical abuse (Giles 171). When reading about corporal punishment it is critical to know that it is an ethic and moral question to as if corporal punishment is right or wrong. It all comes down to what you believe in. It would be nice if everyone got along and didn't hit one another, but in reality everyone is not like that. Something can be done though to prevent the use of corporal punishment. Other types of discipline, without raising a hand to a child, can be taught and used by many parents. It may seem a lot easier to spank and be done, but here are some suggestions that are being used today: 1. Take a deep breath and remember you are the adult. 2. Count to twenty while you pressing your lips together tightly. 3. Go outside or take a walk. Get yourself away from the situation and clear your head (Smith 2). 4. Keep expectations in line with the child's age. 5. Think ahead, and anticipate problems and ways of avoiding them. 6. Offer choices. Don't bark commands. 7. Be consistent. 8. Follow through with consequence, not punishments. (Cain 101). Other steps can be taken to prevent the use of corporal punishment on children. Parents can create a home where it's easier for a child to be well behaved and productive, and where they are less tempted to resort to spanking (Larzelere 30). They can be clear that they are the parents who ultimately set the limits and enforce the rules. One step to doing this would be to teach children how to talk about their feelings, rather than act them out in misbehavior. Next, parents should try to anticipate stressful situations and develop ways of handling them before the child's behavior gets out of control. As long as parents monitor their own levels of anger and are aware of what may trigger angry responses, they can be patient and in control. Last, parents have to be consistent in their parenting, so that all confusion can be stopped between what punishments will be like, so that children can know what to expect if they disobey their parents (White 14). Spanking and other forms of physical punishment teach children that it is all right to hit people who are smaller and weaker. Physical punishment causes parents to lose an opportunity to teach children alternative behaviors, which are socially acceptable. Its use sometimes leads to physical abuse and it contributes to the cycle of child abuse. Other means of discipline are available to parents including time-out, rule setting, and consequences for misbehavior, explaining and reasoning and praise for good behavior. â€Å"Corporal punishment may provide immediate results, but it doesn't teach self-discipline. It teaches that aggression is the way to solve problems and that big people can bully little people† (Cain 121). Corporal punishment is wrong. It may cause problems in the future for the child being hit, and it is not fair to the child. With so many other choices, corporal punishment should be laid to rest.

Tobacco Advertising Is Illegal but Alcohol Is Not

COMM 3P14 – Media Industries Tobacco Advertising is Illegal, but Advertising for Alcohol is not, Is This Hypocritical? Rebecca Stewart 4574927 Russell Johnston Seminar 3 November 11, 2012 Advertisements are a vital part of any company’s marketing strategy, and are used to inform or persuade an audience about a certain product or service. In fact, North American companies are among the world’s highest advertisers (Boone et al. , 2010, 502). Today, an average consumer is exposed to hundreds of advertisements every day.It is when these companies attempt to promote a dangerous product that restrictions must be, and have been put in place. For several years, Canada’s regulations on tobacco advertisements have become stricter, while alcohol advertisements are still permitted across multiple mediums. This leads one to question the difference between the two substances, and if this notion is in fact hypocritical. The stakeholders identified in this paper are the v iewers and listeners of the advertisements, specifically the youth audience.The principles involved with alcohol promotion are examined with a lens that incorporates the views of Horkheimer and Adorno’s perspective on advertising. Along with a brief history of tobacco advertising regulations, this paper will discuss the ethical issues involved in alcohol advertising, and evidence to support that alcoholic products are no less of a danger than tobacco, and should have the same advertising restrictions. There is also evidence to suggest that the majority of Canadians are in favour of tighter restrictions on alcohol advertising.The current hypocritical state of allowing alcohol to be advertised, but removing all tobacco related marketing is further discussed in detail. Literature Review Not only is advertising illegal for tobacco companies, retailers are now obligated to remove these products from sight. Cigarette companies are also no longer permitted to label their product as light or mild on the package (Pollay, 2004, 80). The first Canadian legislation successfully passed in favour of advertising regulations was the Tobacco Act of 1997 (Pollay, 2004, 80).Health Canada created provisions in this act such as, tobacco products must not be promoted, and all manufacturers must share information about the product’s emissions and health hazards arising from use of the product on the packaging (Health Canada, 2011). The intent of this act was to protect young people and others from being encouraged to try tobacco related products without being informed of the dangers to their health (Polley, 2004, 81). The belief was that tobacco ads were aimed at new smokers, and that companies were trying to attract young people towards their brand.This idea is plausible because in order to maintain a strong business over a long period of time, new users must be targeted. Further, there is evidence supporting the fact that current smokers are not likely to be converte d to another brand, making youth targeted advertisements more likely (Polley, 2004, 83). There was pressure to strengthen the advertising restrictions after countless health risks and deaths were attributed to smoking. â€Å"Smoking has been estimated to result in roughly 45,000 deaths annually and is a major cause of respiratory disease, cancer and circulatory disease† (Sen, 2009, 189).A study conducted by the American Journal of Public Health looked at 481 randomly selected tobacco retailers after the product display ban to understand the changes that resulted in tobacco promotion (Cohen et al. , 2011, 1879). Their study revealed that this ban successfully limited the exposure of tobacco products, and demonstrated the importance of a complete ban on retail tobacco displays (Cohen et al. , 2011, 1880). Clearly, limiting advertising exposure to hazardous products such as cigarettes truly limits consumer exposure, and thus promotes the idea of a healthy public.Since these ad r egulations have proved to be a success, it would likely have a very similar effect when applied to alcohol. Ethics is an essential consideration in the world of advertising. Marketers should make responsible decisions, and not just focus on generating profits, because it is legal. â€Å"Ads should address audiences not just as consumers who care about material interests but as citizens who care about social virtues and the public good† (Hove, 2009, 35). The idea of advertising alcoholic beverages is unethical.While there are mild restrictions in Canada regarding alcohol promotions, there is a demand for more. Some provinces run ads that promote responsible drinking, or the dangers of drinking and driving in an attempt to shed light on alcohol abuse (Boone, 2010, 525). However, these attempts do not cancel out the multitude of beer and liquor advertisements in today’s media. Some alcohol advertisements include the ideology that drinking a certain brand of beer will infl uence their social class, or improve their quality of life in some way. This is extremely controversial.An article from the South African Journal of Psychology notes, â€Å"there are no laws against [alcohol] advertisements; however, responsible corporate and professional action, would prevent the use of these advertisements from a social and moral standpoint† (Dubihela & Dubihela, 2011, 209). Clearly, an ethical dilemma is present. The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission is one organization that has viewed alcohol advertisements critically. Since 1968 they have required broadcasters to report the number of alcohol related messages broadcasted annually (CRTC, 2011).The messages also must adhere to their Code for Broadcast of Alcoholic Beverages (CRTC, 2011). This code includes provisions to ensure promotions for alcoholic beverages do not encourage non-drinkers or young people to drink or purchase alcohol, imply a certain brand is superior because of a higher alcohol percentage, and that consumption of alcohol enhances enjoyment of an activity (CRTC 2011). These regulations are far more lenient compared to the restrictions on tobacco advertising.Advertising Standards Canada has now gained responsibility to review advertisements concerning alcohol to ensure they are in accordance with the CRTC’s code (Darling, 1996). Moreover, alcohol is just as dangerous to society as tobacco. Statistics Canada shows that alcohol use by drivers was a factor in nearly 30% of motor vehicle related deaths from 2003-2005 (Statistics Canada, 2011). Also, deaths from other alcohol related disorders such as cirrhosis of the liver accounted for over 1400 deaths in 2003 (Statistics Canada, 2009).The most relevant stakeholders in this issue, young people, are severely affected by alcohol use in Canada. In 2011, 13. 2% of Canadian youth ages 12 to 19 fell under the heavy drinker category, that is, consuming 5 or more drinks on one occasion at least o nce a month (Statistics Canada, 2011). Similarly, â€Å"the rate of persons accused of impaired driving offences was highest among young adults between the ages of 19 and 24† (Statistics Canada, 2011). Additionally, 28. 8% of Canadian students admitted to being driven by someone who was legally impaired (Statistics Canada, 2011).Many Canadians support the public opinion that seeks to enforce stricter regulations when it comes to alcohol products. A study from the Drug and Alcohol Review Journal reports that 50. 1% of Canadians agree with prohibiting alcohol advertising (Macdonald et al. , 2011, 653). Similarly, 47. 4% thought the current legal drinking age of nineteen should be increased, and 40. 1% believed taxes on alcoholic beverages should be raised (Macdonald et al. , 2011, 653). These kinds of changes would make alcohol less available or attractive to young adults.The CRTC’s report that outlines the framework for their advertising regulations states, â€Å"parti es argued that excessive alcohol consumption is as dangerous as smoking and, therefore, should be treated in the same way: the consumer should be warned of the dangers associated with abusive consumption† (Darling, 1996). Clearly, encouraging the sale of any product that can cause this kind of harm is morally irresponsible. Evidently, many Canadians believe alcohol is a dangerous substance that should not be easily accessible to young people. Establish an Interpretive ContextThis research is used to establish whether or not a bias exists. The death and disease rate caused by both alcohol and tobacco is examined to prove that hypocrisy is present. Harmful effects caused by the use of alcohol and tobacco is compared to uncover why this imbalance of advertising restriction is unjust. This is not to say that tobacco products should be reintroduced, but that both substances should be eliminated from media advertising altogether. Furthermore, the views of actual Canadians are consid ered because this fosters a public sphere and forms a widespread opinion on the issue.Also taken into account is the amount of time spent with media by Canadians and specifically young people. Statistics that outline hours spent watching television and surfing the web will be considered. The best outcome for this situation is to restrict alcohol advertisements based on the same grounds outlined in the Tobacco Act. Discussion After reviewing the available data, it is clear an unjust bias exists. The position of this discussion remains that alcohol should be eliminated from advertising for the same reasons tobacco is.Tobacco has been restricted from advertising based on major health concerns, and in an attempt to deter youth from smoking. These same properties are present, and even heightened, with alcohol. â€Å"Some parties, including government representatives, stated that anyone involved with the sale of alcoholic beverages should have the opportunity to advertise their productsà ¢â‚¬  (Darling, 1996). Since evidence categorizes both alcohol and tobacco as dangerous substances, both should be treated the same way with regards to advertising.Alcohol has proven to be even more dangerous than tobacco in some cases. The immediate effects are particularly alarming. Consumption of alcohol can alter one’s state of mind, causing negative health effects, accidents and addiction in some cases. The Canadian Public Health Association reports, â€Å"drinking too much alcohol in a short period of time can lead to poor judgment, impulsive behaviour and alcohol poisoning† (CPHA, 2008). Alcohol poisoning can contribute to long-term health problems and even death. Also of concern are the permanent consequences of long term drinking.Serious conditions such as, brain damage, certain cancers, cirrhosis of the liver, and sexual problems are attributed to alcohol abuse (CPHA, 2008). In addition to life threatening illnesses, withdrawal symptoms can also occur when h eavy drinkers suddenly stop consuming alcohol. These symptoms include but are not limited to insomnia, sweating, tremors, and convulsions (CPHA, 2008). Clearly the additive properties of alcohol are similar to tobacco, and should therefore be handled the same way in advertisement laws. Problems with mental health can also be found with alcohol abuse.According to the Canadian Community Health Survey, â€Å"fifteen percent of people who were alcohol-dependent have experienced major depressive episodes† (Tjekpema, 2004). Also, women who consume alcohol while pregnant are of grave concern. Regular alcohol intake during pregnancy can lead to miscarriages, low birth weight, and genital malformations in boys (Damgaard et al. , 2007, 272). â€Å"Children born to women who consume alcohol during pregnancy may exhibit a range of abnormalities and developmental deficits that together are termed fetal alcohol spectrum disorders† (Kobor & Weinberg, 2011, 29).These preventable defec ts are another reason why alcohol should be considered as dangerous as tobacco. Overall, the negative statistics for alcohol are no less alarming than they are for tobacco. In 2011, 10. 1% of 15 to 17 year olds considered themselves smokers (Statistics Canada 2011). This is substantially lower than the 13. 2% of Canadian youth who fall under the category of heavy drinkers, not to mention the 30% of motor vehicle accidents that are alcohol related. These contrasting statistics speak for themselves, and prove the hypocritical nature of only banning tobacco advertising.Alcohol brands use effective marketing strategies that specifically reach a youth audience, the main stakeholder in this issue. Since the ‘young market’ is attractive to advertisers, their ads frequently catch the eye of people aged 15 to 34 (Novak, 2004). Celebrity endorsements are one way marketers attempt to sell their product to young people. Dan Aykroyd, Zak Galifianakis, and Will Ferrell are just a few celebrities who have endorsed popular alcohol brands (Novak, 2004).These people are relevant to Canadian youth, and they may be inclined to purchase the same brand of alcohol as one of their favourite celebrities. Moreover, 20. 1% of males and females ages 18 to 22 claimed to watch 15 or more hours of television per week (Statistics Canada, 2007). This is a large portion of young people who are subject to the dozens of alcohol advertisements broadcast each day. Alcohol advertisements are not limited to radio and television broadcasting. Many brands are turning to the Internet and social media to promote their products. This is problematic.According to a 2009 survey by Statistics Canada, 82. 9% of Canadians ages 34 and younger claimed to use the Internet at lease once a day, and 86% of these users went online for social media purposes (Statistics Canada, 2009). The government should implement restrictions on encouraging the sale of alcohol to a youth audience. They act as a legitima te spokesperson because they look out for citizen’s best interests. The reasoning behind banning tobacco advertising stemmed from the health hazards and dangers associated with smoking, and the same should be true for alcohol.Some parties argue that there is no scientific evidence linking advertising to overconsumption or underage drinking. If this is true, then the same can be said for tobacco products. However, polls taken in 2011 show that tobacco use fell rapidly amongst teenagers 15 to 19 years of age, shortly after the ban was placed (Goldfarb, 2011, 209). If these restrictions were applied to alcohol products, similar results could be expected. This issue fits into the realm of communication theory. As Horkheimer and Adorno proclaim, the direction of society, â€Å"is incarnate in the subjective purposes of company directors.Production is geared primarily towards profit, not towards the satisfaction of human need or use value† (Johnston, lecture, 2012). Advertis ing executives constantly make decisions based purely on profit instead of taking culture into consideration. Their ads are intended to increase sales and attract new customers of any age. This is problematic on a youth audience. These theorists proclaim that the audience has no choice in the matter (Johnston, lecture, 2012). â€Å"If all culture is enmeshed in the capitalist marketplace then all cultural products espouse the ruling ideology† (Johnston, lecture, 2012).This ideology is business. The government needs to intervene in this cycle so that ethics and moral responsibility are taken into consideration, just as they were with the tobacco advertisement ban. Conclusion If tobacco advertising was banned because it was considered wrong to encourage a habit that causes such detrimental effects, should not the same be true for alcohol? This bias is hypocritical because the government deemed it necessary to intervene when it came to tobacco advertising, and alcohol should not be overlooked.Smoking and alcohol consumption take away people’s lives at the height of their productivity (Jiloha, 2012, 65). By keeping these activities out of the media, youth can be deterred from engaging in them. In fact, advertising has profound consequences. Its persuasiveness and lack of information give audiences a false sense of what the product at hand really is (Hove, 2009, 36). Advertising experts should focus their attention on directing youth audiences against dangerous habits such as smoking and drinking, instead of encouraging them through advertising.While there is no scientific link connecting advertising to over consumption of alcohol, the decrease in young smokers as previously mentioned after the tobacco retail display ban gives reason to assume the same could be true for alcohol. If tighter restrictions are put in place to limit promotion of these products, it could help discourage Canadians from underage drinking, or over consumption. The current stat e of applying restrictions only to the tobacco industry is hypocritical when compared to the equally dangerous properties of alcohol. Works Cited Boone, Kurtz, Mackenzie & Snow (2010).Advertising and Public Relations. Contemporary Marketing, Second Canadian Edition. Toronto: Nelson Education. 500-532. Canada’s Public Health Association. How does alcohol affect health? Canada’s Public Health Leader. November 1, 2012 URL: http://www. cpha. ca/en/portals/substance/health/faq01. aspx Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunication Commission. (August 1, 1996). Code for Broadcast Advertising of Alcoholic Beverages. November 2, 2012, URL: http://www. crtc. gc. ca/eng/general/codes/alcohol. htm Damgaard, I. N. , Jensen, T. K. , Petersen, J. H. , Skakkeb? k, N. E. , Toppari, J. Main, K. M. , & The Nordic Cryptorchidism Study, G. (2007). Cryptorchidism and Maternal Alcohol Consumption during Pregnancy. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(2), 272-277. Dubihlela, J. , & Dubihl ela, D. (2011). Youth attitudes towards advertisements depicting nudity and alcohol: ethical dilemmas in advertising. South African Journal Of Psychology, 41(2), 207-217. Goldfarb, A. , & Tucker, C. (2011). Advertising bans and the substitutability of online and offline advertising. Journal Of Marketing Research, 48(2), 207-227. doi:10. 1509/jmkr. 48. 2. 207 Health Canada. (2011).Tobacco Act. Health Canada. November 1, 2012, URL: http://www. hc-sc. gc. ca/hc-ps/tobac-tabac/legislation/federal/tobac-tabac-eng. php Hove, T. (2009). ADVERTISING, ETHICS, AND THE CITIZEN-CONSUMER. American Academy Of Advertising Conference Proceedings, 35-36. Jiloha, R. C. (2012). Tobacco smoking: How far do the legislative control measures address the problem?. Indian Journal Of Psychiatry, 54(1), 64-68. doi:10. 4103/0019-5545. 94651 Johnston, R. (2012 September). The Public Sphere. Lecture conducted from Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario. Kobor, M. S. , & Weinberg, J. (2011).FOCUS ON: EPIGENETIC S AND FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDERS. Alcohol Research & Health, 34(1), 29-37. MacDonald, S. , Stockwell, T. , & Luo, J. (2011). The relationship between alcohol problems, perceived risks and attitudes toward alcohol policy in Canada. Drug And Alcohol Review, 30(6), 652-658. doi:10. 1111/j. 1465-3362. 2010. 00259. x Novak, J (2004) Alcohol Promotion and The Marketing Industy. York Univeristy: The Association to Reduce Alcohol Promotion in Ontario. Pollay, R. W. (2004). Considering the Evidence, No Wonder the Court Endorses Canada's Restrictions on Cigarette Advertising.Journal Of Public Policy ; Marketing, 23(1), 80-88. Sen, A. (2009). Estimating the impacts of household behavior on youth smoking: evidence from Ontario, Canada. Review Of Economics Of The Household, 7(2), 189-218. doi:10. 1007/s11150-008-9046-11 Statistics Canada. (2007). Prevalence of and adjusted odds ratios for viewing television 15 or more hours per week, by selected characteristics, household population aged 2 0 years or older. November 1, 2012. URL: http://www. statcan. gc. ca/pub/82-003-x/2008002/article/10600/t/5202428-eng. htm Statistics Canada (2009).Internet use by individuals, by selected frequency of use and age. November 1, 2012. URL: http://www. statcan. gc. ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/comm32a-eng. htm Statistics Canada (2009). Deaths by cause. October 31, 2012. URL: http://www5. statcan. gc. ca/cansim/pick-choisir? lang=eng;p2=33;id=1020525 Statistics Canada. (2011). Heavy Drinking by age group and sex. November 1, 2012. URL: http://www. statcan. gc. ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/health79a-eng. htm Tjepkema, M. (2004). In Alcohol and Illicit Drug Dependence. Statistics Canada, Catalogue 15.

Advances in Modern Irrigation Systems Essay

ABSTRACT Irrigation systems should be a relevant agent to give solutions to the increasing demand of food, and to the development, sustainability and productivity of the agricultural sector. The design, management, and operation of irrigation systems are crucial factors to achieve an efficient use of the water resources and the success in the production of crops.The aim of this paper is to analyze the advances made in irrigation systems as well as identify the principal criteria and processes that allow improving the design and management of the irrigation systems,based on the basic concept that they facilitate to develop agriculture more efficiently and sustainable. The advances and management of irrigation systems at farm level is a factor of the first importance for the rational use of water, economic development of the agriculture and its environmental sustainability. Key words: Irrigation, Design, Water Management, Operation Systems INTRODUCTION Water required by crops is supplied by nature in theform of precipitation, but when it becomes scarce or its distribution does not coincide with demand peaks, it is then necessary to supply it artificially, by irrigation. Several irrigation methods are available, and the selection of one depends on factors such as water availability, crop, soil characteristics, land topography, and associated cost. In the near future, irrigated agriculture will need to produce two-thirds of the increase in food products required by a larger population (English et al., 2002). The growing dependence on irrigated agriculture coincides with an accelerated competition for water and increased awareness of unintended negative consequences of poor design and management (Cai et al., 2003) Optimum management of available water resources at farm level is needed because of increasing demands, limited resources, water table variation in space and time, and soil contamination (Kumar and Singh, 2003). Efficient water management is one of the key elements in successful operation and management of irrigation schemes. Irrigation technology has made significant advances in recent years. Criteria and procedures have been developed to improve and rationalize practices to apply water, through soil leveling, irrigation system design, discharge regulations, adduction structures, and control equipment. However, in many regions these advances are not yet available at the farm stage. Irrigation systems are selected, designed and operated to supply the irrigation requirements of each crop on the farm while controlling deep percolation, runoff, evaporation, and operational losses, to establish a sustainable production process. Playà ¡n and Mateos (2006) mentioned that modernized irrigation systems at farm level implies selecting the appropriate irrigation system and strategy according to the water availability, the characteristics of climate, soil and crop, the economic and social circumstance s, and the constraints of the distribution system. Efficient irrigation equipment generally comes in two broad categories—drip and sprinkler irrigation. Both of these areas have several sub-types of equipment in them. Within drip irrigation are surface drip equipment, subsurface drip equipment and micro sprays/sprinklers. This category of drip irrigation and particularly subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is one of the most exciting and newest technologies in irrigation. Drip irrigation has attracted tremendous interest by academics, who measure the performance of drip systems and promote drip as a water savings technology. Sprinkler equipment can also be broken down into several subcategories including wheel lines, solid set and hand move pipe, traveling guns, and mechanical move irrigation (MMI) systems, which include center pivots and linear move equipment. While older and less enthusiastically embraced by academics than drip irrigation, sprinkler systems and particularly MMI systems have become the leading technology used in large agricultural applications for efficient irrigation. With the advent of Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) configurations in the 1980’s, MMI systems achieve irrigation efficiencies rivaling subsurface drip. Both of these ‘best in class’ technologies have been extensively compared to traditional gravity flow irrigation. Both systems can demonstrate significantly better overall performance than traditional irrigation methods. Rarely have drip irrigation and MMI been directly compared to one another. The balance of this paper will draw comparisons between these two types of irrigation systems, and explore how appropriate each technology is for various types of farming operations. IRRIGATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE Up to this point, our discussion on advances in irrigation has focused on water savings. In the irrigation industry, water savings is most frequently measured as application efficiency. Application efficiency is the fraction of water stored in the soil and available for use by the crop divided by the total water applied. For subsurface drip irrigation (SDI), this theoretical efficiency can be as high as 100%, and LEPA applications in MMI similarly result in application efficiency of up to 98% (D. Rogers, 2012). While application efficiency is a good starting point in understanding irrigation performance, efficiency measurements under ideal conditions on a test plot hardly tell the whole story about irrigation performance. In general, we can analyze irrigation performance in five categories as shown below WATER EFFICIENCY Researchers generally give the edge to subsurface drip irrigation SDI when they evaluate water efficiency. According to the IrrigationAssociation, subsurfacedrip irrigation (SDI) installations, if properly managed, can achieve 95% water efficiency (James Hardie, 2011). This high level of water efficiency isapproximately the same as what a LEPA center pivot or linear system achieves, at 90-95%, and definitely better than the 75-85% efficiency of center pivot with the obsolete water application method of impact sprinklers mounted to the top of the MMI system’s pipe. Gravity flow installations are typically around 40%-50% efficient. For the purpose of a farmer’s consideration, LEPA and SDI systems can be thought of as having equivalent potential efficiency. Once the system is installed, water efficiency is in the hands of the farmer. While data on this topic is difficult to find, it seems that farmers habitually over-apply water to their fields with all types of irrigation equipment including gravity flow. Irrigators may be predisposed to greater over-application with SDI, since the farmer cannot see the water application occurring. Both systems will benefit from more sophisticated information on evapotranspiration and plant health to allow more precise application of water and reduce over-application. SDI systems typically require periodic cleaning and flushing to prevent root ingression and plugging. Such flushing is not a requirement with MMI equipment. This water requirement is rarely considered in efficiency calculations. CROP YIELD DRIVER In most cases, the contribution that an irrigation system can make to reaching optimal crop yields is by delivering water to plants when they need it and by applying water uniformly over the area of the field. However, when the available water supply is insufficient to fully meet the water needs of a crop, then the highest crop yields will be achieved by the irrigation system with the highest application efficiency. Uniform water application by MMI systems is determined by sprinkler package design and by the rate at which the equipment moves across the field. Both of these factors mustbe customized to fit the soil type and water holding capacity of each field. MMI experts today have a very good understanding of the relationship between soil type, water holding capacity, equipment speed, and sprinkler package design, and they have even developed several computer programs to generate highly uniform patterns of water distribution for low pressure and LEPA systems. Changes in the elevation of terrain can beaccommodated by the use of pressure regulators. Uniformity of MMI systems is fairly constant over time. Variations among individual nozzles is significantly reduced by the movement of the equipment and by the overlap between the wetted diameters of soil irrigated by each individual sprinkler head. Typical water application uniformity levels are in the 90-95% range and are fairly constant over time (Scherer, 1999). In applications with high levels of abrasives present in the water, sprinkler packages must be replaced and redesigned every few years to maintain watering uniformity. Drip systems can also be designed to have high levels of uniformity. A typical design targets uniformity levels in the 85% range. SDI design is not as standardized as MMI system design is, and consequently the water application of any drip system is highly dependent on the skill and knowledge the technician who designed it. Unlike MMI systems, drip system uniformity c an change substantially over time if proper maintenance is not performed to the drip installation. This is particularly difficult for subsurface systems, whose emitters are more likely to suck in soil which cannot then be easily removed by hand since the emitters are buried underground. According to a South African study published in 2001, field examinations of drip systems show that water application uniformity deteriorates significantly over time.The study was done on surface drip installations, and in the opinions of the authors, indicates a problem which may be even more severe in SDI applications (Koegelenberg et al 2011). System availability and controllability is generally good with both MMI and SDI systems, since both offer the ability to irrigate at least once every 24 hours. The exception to this can be with towable pivots, where use of the equipment on multiple fields may limit its availability. Both systems support the use of sophisticated automatic controls and remote control and monitoring. Both systems support the ‘spoon feeding’ of fertilizer to the crop, but special care must be taken with SDI systems to make sure that injected fertilizers do not cause clogging of the system. For SDI systems, soil salinization is also a significant problem in areas where salts are present in irrigation water. As salts build up in soil, crop yields decrease. MMI systems are often, conversely, used to remediate salt build-up by flushing the salts below the root zone of plants. Based on a review of available literature, itappears that in non-water limited applications, SDI and MMI systems produce equivalent yields, although the center pivot will use slightly more water in those comparisons due to losses fromsurface evaporation. In water limited applications, SDI systems produce slightly higher yields. Over time, SDI system maintenance is of great importance. A lapse in system maintenance can result in a significant and permanent degradation of watering uniformity, which in turn causes permanently higher water consumption and lower crop yields. COST DRIVERS A lot of conflicting information exists concerning the costs of both SDI and MMI systems. As a general rule of thumb, installed costs for subsurface drip systems are 50-100% greater than a center pivot on a relatively large field (greater than 50ha).(O’Brien et al 1998). Cost depends on a number of factors including: availability of proper power, filtration type used in the drip system, the value of installation labor, towable vs. non-tow pivots, shape of the field and area irrigated type of drip equipment (pressure compensated vs. non-pressure compensated) and the use of linear move equipment, or corner arm extensions on a center pivot. Also important to the long-term cost is the expected life. Center pivots have an average life expectancy of 25 years with minimal maintenance expenses, typically less than 1% per year of the original price. In a few installations where the source water is corrosive to galvanize steel, it is important for the buyer to move to corrosion resistan t products such as aluminum, stainless steel, or polyethylene lined systems. Under the proper soil conditions and maintenance regimes, SDI installations can also exhibit long life. Some research installations have surpassed 20 years of usage with still functioning systems. Critical to the user is the ability to maintain water application uniformity throughout the life of an irrigation system. In most commercial installations, drip systems performance degrades with time due to plugging, root intrusion, and pest damage. Diagnosis and repair of SDI system problems can be expensive and challenging to perform. Typical maintenance costs range from 3% to 10% per year of the original system cost. Another advantage of MMI technology is its portability. It is not uncommon for a center pivot to be moved several times during its expected service life. Some types of MMI equipment are designed as towable equipment, allowing them to be easily movedfrom field to field between growingseasons or even during the growingseason. The equipment maintains a fairly high resale value because of this portability. SDI systems, with the exception of some filtration and control elements, are generally not salvageable or resell able at all. In addition to maintenance and repair costs, the other significant system operating cost is energy used to pump water and field labor. Energy costs are related to the volume of water pumped and the pressure required. Research shows that these two costs are nearly equal for SDI and MMI systems. Center pivot and linear systems at research plots typically pump slightly more volume of water then SDI systems, but SDI pump outlet pressures are typically higher (3 bar vs. 1.5-2 bar). Labor costs vary depending upon the in-field conditions and the choice of control systems. One 1990 article shows pivots to require 3 hours per hectare, while drip requires 10 hours per hectare.(Kruse et al, 1990). Even in trouble-free installations of equal control sophistication, SDI seems to require more labor because of its regularly required maintenance cycle. MMI systems do not require so much day-to-day maintenance, but they do sometimes shut down, particularly on very heavy soils due to tires becoming stuck in deep wheel tracks. CROP SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS Different crop specific characteristics favor one system type over another. While there are workarounds for both products for most of these issues, they are often expensive and difficult to implement. Drip systems or micro-irrigation are often preferred by growers when crop height may be an issue for mechanical systems as over cashew nut trees, or with planting patterns not conducive to above ground mobile irrigation equipment as with vineyards. Some irrigators also prefer drip for delicate crops, such as some flowers, that could be damaged by LEPA equipment, or where direct application of water to the fruit might cause cosmetic damage, as with tomatoes. Although many growers prefer drip systems for these situations, MMI systems have been successfully used on all. MMI systems are preferred where surface water application isrequired to germinate seed as with carrots and onions, particularly in sandy soils. MMI systems also have an advantage in applying foliar herbicides and pesticides, and can be used for crop coolingin temperature sensitive crops such as corn. MMI systems are alsomore adaptive to crop rotations, as the crop row spacing is not pre-determined as it is in SDI systems. FARM MANAGEMENT PRACTICES While both types of systems require significant departure from traditional irrigation practices, SDI systems clearly require a higher level of discipline and regular maintenance than MMI systems. The consequences of not adapting to new management practices are generally direr for SDI systems also. SDI farms must commit to the regular cleaning and flushing procedures described by the system designer and the equipment manufacturers. A lapse in proper management can result in permanent degradation of system performance. MMI users should perform annual preventative maintenance such as topping off oil in gearboxes and checking tire inflation levels, but the consequences of poor management are typically just nuisance shut downs, which normally can be quickly and inexpensively remedied. A special problem that faces owners of MMI equipment in some third world countries is theft, particularly theft of motors, controls and copper wire. To combat this problem, a number of adaptations have been made to reduce the risk of theft on the system. Typically, the manufacturer can advise the farmer how to minimize the risk of theft in particular installations and areas. MMI systems are less flexible when it comes to field configuration and water infrastructure. Farmland laid out in 2 hectare plots with canals serving the individual fields, for example, are difficult to adapt to MMI systems. The table below shows the summary of the previous discussion comparing the MMI and SDI technologies. Analysis of SDI and MMI System Performance| Water Efficiency * SDI has slightly higher efficiency than LEPA (95% vs. 90-95%) in research installation. * No known studies yet compare actual on-farm efficiency| Crop Yields * SDI performs better in research tests when water availability is the limiting factor, otherwise yields are equivalent between the two systems. * Uniformity of SDI systems appears to degrade over time, favoring MMI. * Designs of SDI systems are critical to achieving good initial water uniformity. * Where salinity is a problem, MMI systems have a clear edge.| Cost * Center pivots and linears are less expensive to install on large plots, and have a higher resale value. * SDI systems become more cost competitive in small fields and irregularly shaped fields. * MMI systems have long lives (25 years on average). SDI can have a life of 10-15 years if proper maintenance is performed. * Ongoing maintenance costs of SDI are 3-5 times higher than MMI. * Operating costs for energy are similar between the two technologies, but MMI systems typically require much less labor.| Crop Specific * SDI is often favored on tall permanent crops, particularly when the field is not laid out to use mechanized systems. * MMI systems are preferred in sandy soils where surface application is necessary for germination. * Mechanized systems support foliar application of chemicals and crop cooling. * Mechanized systems are preferred where there are frequent crop rotations.| Farm Management * SDI systems are less adaptive and forgiving to poor management practices. * Theft is an issue for mechanized systems in some third world markets. * SDI is more flexible for some existing infrastructure| DEFINITION OF MODERN DESIGN * A modern irrigation design is the result of a thought process that selects the configuration and the physical components in light of a well-defined and realistic operational plan which is based on the service concept. * Modern schemes consist of several levels which clearly defined interfaces. * Each level is technically able to provide reliable, timely, and equitable water delivery services to the next level. That is, each has the proper types, numbers, and configuration of gates, turnouts, measurement devices, communications systems and other means to control flow rates and water levels as desired. * Modern irrigation schemes are responsive to the needs of the end users. Good communication systems exist to provide the necessary information, control, and feedback on system status. * The hydraulic design is robust, in the sense that it will function well in spite of changing channel dimensions, siltation, and communication breakdowns. Automatic devices are used where appropriate to stabilize water levels in unsteady flow conditions. ADVANCES MADE IN IRRIGATION MICRO IRRIGATION During the last three decades, micro irrigation systems made major advances in technology development and the uptake of the technology increased from 3 Mha in 2000 to more than 6 Mha in 2006. Micro-irrigation is an irrigation method that applies water slowly to the roots of plants, by depositing the water either on the soil surface or directly to the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters (see Figure below). Fig. 1: Components of a micro-irrigation system EARLY HISTORY OF MICRO-IRRIGATION Drip irrigation was used in ancient times by filling buried clay pots with water and allowing the water to gradually seep into the soil. Modern drip irrigation began its development in Germany in 1860 when researchers began experimenting with sub irrigation using clay pipe to create combination irrigation and drainage systems. In 1913, E.B. House at Colorado State University succeeded in applying water to the root zone of plants without raising the water table. Perforated pipe was introduced in Germany in the 1920s and in 1934; O.E. Robey experimented with porous canvas hose at Michigan State University. With the advent of modern plastics during and after World War II, major improvements in drip irrigation became possible. Plastic micro tubing and various types of emitters began to be used in the greenhouses of Europe and the United States. A new technology of drip irrigation was then introduced in Israel by Simcha Blass and his son Yeshayahu. Instead of releasing water through tiny holes, blocked easily by tiny particles, water was released through larger and longer passage ways by using friction to slow the water flow rate inside a plastic emitter. The first experimental system of this type was established in 1959 in Israel by Blass, where he developed and patented the first practical surface drip irrigation emitter. The Micro-sprayer concept was developed in South Africa to contain the dust on mine heaps. From here much more advanced developments took place to use it as a method to apply water to mainly agricultural crops. ADVANTAGES OF MICRO-IRRIGATION The advantages of drip irrigation are as follows: * Sophisticated technology * Maximum production per mega litre of water * Increased crop yields and profits * Improved quality of production * Less fertilizer and weed control costs * Environmentally responsible, with reduced leaching and run-off * Labour saving * Application of small amounts of water more frequent DISADVANTAGES OF MICRO-IRRIGATION The disadvantages of micro-irrigation are as follows: * Expensive * Need managerial skills * Waste: The plastic tubing and â€Å"tapes† generally last 3-8 seasons before being replaced * Clogging * Plant performance: Studies indicate that many plants grow better when leaves are wetted as well CENTER-PIVOT IRRIGATION The biggest single change since the first irrigation symposium is the amount of land irrigated with center-pivot and linear-move irrigation machines. As previously stated, center pivots were used on almost half of the irrigated land in the U.S. in 2008 (USDA-NASS, 2012). Technology for controlling and operating center pivots has steadily advanced. Kranz et al. (2012) describe how operators can now communicate with irrigation machines by cell phone, satellite radio, and internet-based systems. New sensors are being developed to collect soil or crop information that can be used for managing irrigation. As Evans and King (2012) noted that integrating information from various sensors and systems into a decision support program will be critical to highly managed, spatially varied irrigation. Technology has allowed irrigators to precisely control irrigation. However, technology to precisely apply irrigation water is wasted if the water does not infiltrate into soil where it was applied. King and Bjorneberg (2012) characterize the kinetic energy applied to the soil from common center-pivot sprinklers and relate this energy to runoff and soil erosion to improve center-pivot sprinkler selection. Finally, Martin et al. (2012) describe the wide variety of sprinkler packages available for mechanical-move irrigation machines and how those sprinkler packages are selected. Above Left: A Field VISION control panel operates one of his pivots Above Right: A computer screen display showing the exact position of the irrigation pivot, along with how much water is being sprayed on the crop A Zimmatic Pivot Irrigation System An Irrigation Field Covered by a Center Pivot Irrigation System A Center Pivot Irrigation System in Action CONCLUSION The success or failure of any irrigation system depends to a large extent on careful selection, thorough planning, accurate design and effective management. One thing we can be certain of, the demands of irrigated agriculture will certainly not diminish, they will indeed increase almost exponentially. Advanced surface irrigation will still dominate as the primary irrigation method, but with the current trends, the area under micro-irrigation will continue to expand. Both subsurface drip and mechanical move irrigation systems have a legitimate place in agricultural water conservation plans for the future. Both systems offer significant potential water application reduction, as well as yield improvements over traditionally managed irrigation fields. In general, mechanized systems are most suitable for: broad area crops in large fields, new land development, and sandy soils. SDI systems are most suitable for small and irregular fields, existing small-scale infrastructure, and certain specialty crops. These innovative technologies require significant investment. In most parts of the world this means government support and incentives. Mexico and Brazil are two leading countries in providing effective incentives to farmers to invest in modern efficient agricultural irrigation. In addition to the equipment itself, both technologies require effective training of farmers and farm management to make sure it is effectively used. Poor management can easily offset most of the water saving and yield gains made possible by the equipment. Employing the modern technology available for water-efficient irrigation is clearly a key to over coming the global challenges of water scarcity. Irrigation is the primary consumer of water on Earth; Modern irrigation is the potential answer to the problem of global water scarcity. REFERENCES English, M.J., K.H. Solomon, and G.J. Hoffman. 2002.A paradigm shift in irrigation management. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 128:267-277. Evans, R. G. and B. A. King. 2012. Site-specific sprinkler irrigation in a water-limited future. Trans. ASABE 55(2): 493-504. Cai, X., D.C. McKinney, and M.W. Rosegrant. 2003. Sustainability analysis for irrigation water management in the Aral Sea region. Agric. Syst. 76:1043-1066. James Hardie. 2011. Drip Irrigation for Landscaping: An Introductory Guide,26, in Irrigation Association, â€Å"Agricultural Hardware,† Agricultural School of Irrigation, 17 King, B. A. and D. L. Bjornberg.2012. Droplet kinetic energy of moving spray-plate center-pivot irrigation sprinklers. Trans. ASABE 55(2): 505-512. Koegelenberg, F. and R. Reinders. 2011. Performance of Drip Irrigation Systems under Field Conditions (South Africa: Agricultural Research Center-Institute for Agricultural Engineering). Kranz, W. L., R. G. Evans, and F. R. Lamm. 2012. A review of center-p ivot irrigation control and automation technologies. Applied Eng. in Agric. 28(3): (in press) Kruse, A., B.A. Stewart, and R.N. Donald. 1990. Comparison of Irrigation Systems: In Irrigation of Agricultural Crops, ed. (Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy, 1990), 475-505. Kumar, R. and J. Singh. 2003. Regional water management modeling for decision support in irrigated agriculture. J. Irrig. Drain. Eng. 129:432-439. Martin, D. L., W. R. Kranz, A. L. Thompson, and H. Liang. 2012. Selecting sprinkler packages for center pivots. Trans. ASABE 55(2): 513-523. O’Brien .E. 1998.An Economic Comparison of Subsurface Drip and Center Pivot Sprinkler Irrigation Systems,† American Society of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 14(4), (1998): 391-398. Playà ¡n, E., and L. Mateos. 2006. Modernization and optimization of irrigation systems to increase water productivity. Agric. Water Manage. 80:100-116. Rogers, D. 2012.LEPA Irrigation Management for Center Pivots. Irrigation Association Online; available from http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/ageng2/l907.pdf; Internet; accessed 15 October 2012 Scherer, 1999. Sprinkler Irrigation Systems (Ames, IA: Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University, USDA-NASS. 2012. Farm and ranch irrigation survey. Washington, D.C.: USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. Available at: www.agcensus.usda.gov. Accessed 11 October 2012

Business Letter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Letter - Essay Example Greenhouse gases like carbon monoxide are the main cause of global warming. This global warming is presently the greatest threat to our planet Earth. The per capita consumption of paper is high around the world. The Americans lead the pack with average per capita consumption of around 700 pounds per year. 42% of the world’s wood harvest is used by the paper industry. The paper industry is actually one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. It contributes more than 9% to the greenhouse gas emissions of the manufacturing industry. In a country like United States, the paper industry is the fourth largest emitter of greenhouse gases. Paper accounts for approximately 30% of all landfill waste. Paper accounts for one third of all municipal waste. Municipal waste accounts for more than 30% of emission of methane. Methane is three times more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Cutting down of paper use by even 10% would result in reduction of emission of greenhouse gases by many million tones. The increasing use of recycled paper has offered some respite from the environmentally adverse impact of using paper. However, the demand for recycled paper is expected to exceed the supply by 1.5 million tones of recycled paper by 2017. However, the use of recycled paper is minimal in the printing and writing paper industry. With the growth of emerging economies like Brazil, India, Russia and China, the demand for paper has increased even more. According to some studies the pulp and paper industry may be contributing more to the global and local environmental problem than most industries of the world. The manufacturing of paper requires cutting down of rich forests, pollution in waterways and destruction of natural habitat for many endangered wildlife species of the world. Besides this, paper mills also generate greenhouse gases and also some